2.
   2023
/  

[   (. 1469-1799)]
: 3     :100
:    -    ,        
             
-
1.        
2. () 
()  
-
3.           
4.              '
       
-
2.
5.              
   
6.              
  
-
7.        ?        ?
8. 
           
2.
   2023
/  

[   (. 1469-1799)]
: 3     :100
:    -    ,        
             
-
1.        
: 
   ,         
   
   ,       ,  '   ,   
       ,   "  "  "
   "                - 
, , , ,           
  
󷇮󷇭 -     ?
   -           ,   
   ,            
   :
   
 -   
 
- 
 
2.
         ',     
  
       , ,     

          ,     -
       
󷇙󷇚󷇜󷇝󷇞󷇟󷇛   -    
       :
'' = 
'' = 
       "   "   :
󷄧󷄫󷄧󷄬󷄧󷄭󷄧󷄮 󷄰󷄯
, 1947      ,     (, ,   
')   ,    '         
              
   
 ,   -    
󺅥󺅦󺅧󺅨󺅩   
      
   -   ,   
  
1.   (  )
    ,   , ,    
 ,     ,       
    
          
          
 

    
      
       
2.

󽆱      
󽆱      
2.   -   
  "  " ,     
     ,
        ,   ,  ,  , ,
,         

  
    
    ' 

󽆱     
󽆱         
󽆱 (    - )    
3. -    (- )
 , ,             
    
 

    
       

󽆱  
󽆱    
󽆱     
󷉍󷉎󷉓󷉏󷉐󷉑󷉒   -   
          :
  (  45°C !)
2.
  ( C     )
     
    ,        ,     


     (  )  
      

󽆱    
󽆱     
󽆱   - 
      
󷊆󷊇 -    
     '   - , ,        
 1960  1970         ,     
  
     -   
󽆱   
󽆱 
󽆱    
         ,        
  
󺟨󺟩󺟯󺟪󺟫󺟬󺟭󺟮 -        
 ,       ,       
        ,  ,  ( 
),     
   '       
   
 - 

  

 
2.
     ' 
  

󽆱 '   
󽆱   
󽆱   
󽆱    
󹲡  -     
      ,           

:
   
 
    
               
󷊋󷊊   
         ,        
             
:
󽆱
󽆱 
󽆱  
     
󷆧󷩕󷆗󷆨󷆩󷆚󷩖󷆛󷩗󷩘󷩙󷆜󷩚󷆝󷇆 
     , , ,      
     ,      ,   
-      
2.
󽇐 -   
   ,         , , 
               
          -,    ,  
,     '       
   
      ,  ,   ,  ,
           , 
    ,        
2. () 
()  
:() 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  ?
       ,        85-90%  
""   -   ,    "  "    -
  (    )         

 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :             
   '   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
632        ,      
  
          '    ,
    '
          ()    
       ,     ,   
           
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
1.  :
2.
o       
o  (  )      
o      
  :
 ( )
 ()
 ()
 (   )
 (  )
2.    :
o   , ,      ()   
 
o              
 
3.   :
o     '   
o   
      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
 ,     :
       ' 
     
  ,  ,   
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔     :        ,  
   ,      
        
  ,     '   
()  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   ?
           (     
 )         '        ,
     
 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  :    ( //)     
 ,     -         
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
2.
  7
-12
            

,  , ,         ,
    
      
         '      -  
,    -    
    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
1.  :
o     
o        
o    -           

2.   :
o  (  ) 
o      
o , ,   ()  
3. :
o      ( ) ,   
   
    
o     (  ) 
     ' 

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
 ,  ,       :
      
      
  (   )    (   )  

󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔       :        ,  
 
 ,             
    -        
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
  -    ,          :
 '   :    
   '
  ,         '   
2.
 :    '    -   ,
    
 :       ,       
    
   :
  ,    '   
  ,        '   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
       
      
                '  
           ,   
'   
-
3.           
: - -     ?
     1534            
   ,     "  "        -
         ,      
    , ,     ,    
    1574       
          ,       
  
      ,   ,  
                
      
1.    -        
                    
  - 
                  
       ,         
2.
 ,         ,  ,  
           
        ( )      
      ,    "  "    ,
     -       
     
;         
           ,      
 
2.     
          
      
 
   ( )   
          ,   
  '           
                
   ,    
  ,               
,        -       : •  
       
   
   
    :    
           ,   
  
 '       
3.       
                
 ,   '          
               
       , ,      

            
2.
4.  -     
    ,     '  -     
                  
   ,          
      
 -          
    ,              
              
5. ,     
          '  :
 -  
                 
 ,   ,          
 -  
 -   
   ,        '   
             
 -  
   ( )   ( )      
    ,     
6.      
          ,        
    ,         
    
                  
   ,        
2.
7.     
                , ,
                
   
   ,          
  
 ,    ,    ,    
   
 -      

        
;       
      
  :
 -       -     
 -   
     ,     
   
,   ,      '   
    
     ,     
4.              '
       
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
    ,            
  :        ()   ()
 ,                
   ,          
         ,    '
           
,     , 
      
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼:    
?
2.
 ,     1606         
               
      
 ,         '   
            
 

        
   - 
   /    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔 ,        :      
    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
1.    
      :
 ( ): ,      
 
 ( ): ,  -  
 
 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  ,                
  -   '     ' 
2.    
        ( )    
(    ) 
    
 
    
 
        ,  
    
     
3.    
      ,      
 
            
  
  -  -        
 
4.     
2.
        
  ,  
    
,        :   
,   ,    
    
      -   

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
  
1.   :          
 
2.  :       ,
     
3.  
: 1699           

,   - 
4.   :     ,    
'           
  
1.   :           
    ,     '    
2.    :     '    ,  
   
3.  :        

;           
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔   ,            
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
1.    
    ,     '        ,
  -   ,        
  
2.    
             ,   
            
2.
3. - 
   - (-)     -     
                   
4.  
     :  
     
         
,     
    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
              
        ,     
    
           
     ,     ,   
,       

-
5.              
   
:-  
             ,  
17
    18
            
  ,   ,      ,    , -
             -
      ,   (   )
                
 ,             -,
,       '  
               
     
        
2.
1.   -    
 ,               
        , ,       
                 
 
 ,   ,          
 ,         
     
 
2.  
?
  ,              
                 
      :
"            ?"
"    '        ?"
"     ?"
   ,  -      
3.      
1699 ,               
, , -           
                  
           ,    
  
4.      
                
           (1688)      
    ,            
  ,              
 
;   ,     
 ,            
,   
                
    ,   :
     (1700-1704)
  -    ,      , 
      
2.
5.      
          - '  :
     

    '   

              
      ,        
;
  ,            
   
,   '   
       
1.   
                
     ,         
                  
        ,        
 
2.    
       '       
          :
       
       
        
 ,    -  '  ,      
,            
 
3.     
        :
"
 
,   
    ,  
   "
   -            
       ,     ,
2.
      ,        

       
,      
4.   
-    
                 
   
 :
      
       
    
,      
    
,     
  
       -    ()  ,
   ,    -      
   ,
              :
   
   
    
 ,      ,         


           ,    
       ,         
,       ,    -    
  ,  ,            
       
;  , ,     
 
2.
6.              
  
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  :       
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-
   (1670–1716)           
             ,       
               
               
              
      ,         

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼:       
1708         ,      
     
            ,    
      
      :   ,     
    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔              
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
1.       
    1709       ,    
,    '           
    
               
     '   
     
 -          
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔    ,          
  
2.     
1710      ,         
2.
            '   ,    
   
      ,     (
 )    ,       
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔           ,      
          
3.  
        
 
 ()          

     ,            
    
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔         ,     
  
4.   
            '  
       ,      
    -         , 
       
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      
;         
   
5.    
               
       

           
     -     
      ,          
          
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼          ?
 1:   
       ,      
 
2.
            
 2:   
       ,      ' 

       ,      
 
 3:  
          
   '          
 4:  
        ,      
 
    
   ,        
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼  
        (1710-1716)  
         '  ,   
          
           
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔   ,         

󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
            
   ,   ,     ,  
 ,             ,    
     
2.
-
7.        ?        ?
:             
 
         ,  
 , 
     
   
         
, ,    -       
        
     , , 
   ,         -  
,    -         
 ,      
   ,     
     ,        
 ,         
       -     ,      
  
       
1.    
                
,               
              ' 
      '          
    ,     ,      
1606                

 
 ,    ,      ,   , 
               
 
               ,
  1675              
 
 ,       ' 
        

2.
2. ,   
               , 
  '   ,    '   ,    
              
  :
  '  
      
     
    
 -        
3.    
        
      - 
   
      ,      '   
                 
 ,     ,           ,
                    
  
4.        
   ,           
 '              
    
       ?
       ,    
   ,   
         , ,      

1.       
2.
       ,  ,       
    
          ,  
       -   ()    
               
           
      
2.        
    1699             - -
     , ,    '   
   (, , ,   ) 
      
          
   ,     
3.     
    
;           
             
  ,           


     ,            
     ,     '  , 
  ,     
4.      
       ,         
   ,  '            
   ,              
 
5.   
2.
            (  ),
                 
  ,             
 

           -   ,  ,
   ,       ,     
               ,
,    ,          ,
    
8. 
           
:󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼-

        ,     
, 1707               
   ,    -  ,      -
              
               
      
 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔  : -     ,   ,   
         -   ,  
    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼     
1.  (    )
 :           
         ()    
    '    
:          ,   
     
 :     ,    
    
2.
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔          ,     
    '  
2.  (    )
 :      (  ) 
       ,     
           
:     ,      '  
,      
  :      ,     
     
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔              -
   
3.  (--  )
 :          
       
 :        

  :          
 '  
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔            
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼

       ,        
  
 :       (25% )   (10%
)            
 :       ,    ( 
, , ) -  '       
  
 :         '  , 
        
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔       ,      
  
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
2.
 ,          ()    
 
 :           
 
  :      ,  
   
 :    '  ,       
  :   (19
  )  ,  
  ,   ,      
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      -       
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
 :       ,  
       
 :   
     '  

:             
-   
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔      
 ,    
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼    
     ,            :
 :    
    
()  
  :      ,    

 : ()   '   ,  

 
󷷑󷷒󷷓󷷔           
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼
     
  ,          :
1.   :         
    
2.
2.  :        
3.  :        
 
 ,      
4.  : ,       , 
   
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼   
         
 
       
,        
       ,     
 
󷈷󷈸󷈹󷈺󷈻󷈼

               
               ,  
 ,             
     ,   ,        
  
        
 ,  
           
"              
 
       ,       
 "